Welcome to our comprehensive foundation engineering guide. In this post, we will look at the definition, importance, design considerations, construction methodologies, common concerns, repair and maintenance, new trends, and commonly asked questions about foundations engineering. This article will provide essential insights into the realm of foundations engineering, whether you are a construction professional, a homeowner, or simply inquisitive about the science behind building strong structures.
What is Foundations Engineering?
Foundations engineering is a subfield of civil engineering that focuses on the design, construction, and upkeep of foundations for diverse structures. A foundation is the basis that a building or other structure stands on, providing stability and transferring loads from the structure to the underlying soil or rock. Engineers of foundations assess soil conditions, design the foundation system, and ensure its safe construction to support the intended structure during its lifespan.
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Importance of Foundations Engineering
Foundations engineering is critical in the building business because it ensures the stability, safety, and longevity of structures. The engagement of an engineer to inspect the foundation is a crucial aspect of foundation engineering. This article will discuss the importance of foundation engineering and the function of an engineer in foundation inspection.
Read: The Importance of Geotechnical Engineering in Construction Projects
Structural Integrity
The foundation is the foundation upon which a building or structure is built. A well-designed and adequately engineered foundation ensures structural integrity and prevents the entire structure from settling, shifting, or collapsing. An engineer inspects the foundation to ensure that it is sound, meets the appropriate design specifications, and can handle the predicted loads.
Safety Assurance
Buildings and structures are occupied by people, therefore their safety is critical. A weakened or deficient foundation can result in hazardous conditions, such as structural failure, which can cause injuries or even death. An engineer’s evaluation of the foundation identifies any potential safety issues, allowing for quick remediation and assuring occupant safety.
Preventing Structural Damage
Foundations support the structure above and convey its weight to the underlying rock or soil. The uneven settlement, cracks in the walls or floors, and other structural problems can occur if the foundation is not properly built or constructed. An engineer can discover indicators of distress or impending failure by assessing the foundation, allowing for early intervention to prevent further damage and costly repairs.
Compliance with Regulations
Local authorities’ building codes and regulations must be followed for construction projects. Engineers at Foundations verify that the design and construction of the foundation meet these regulatory criteria. An engineer’s inspection checks adherence to applicable codes, standards, and specifications, reducing the risk of noncompliance penalties and legal concerns.
Long-Term Performance
A well-engineered foundation helps a structure’s long-term performance and longevity. An engineer can examine the foundation’s condition and find any flaws that may impair its performance over time by evaluating it. This data can be used to create maintenance or repair plans to extend the structure’s lifespan and reduce future expenditures.
Engineering foundations are essential in the construction business. The use of an engineer to inspect the foundation assures structural integrity, safety, and regulatory compliance. The best way to avoid a problem is to avoid it altogether.
Different Types of Foundations
There are two main types of foundations: shallow foundations and deep foundations.
Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations, also known as spread footings, are frequently employed when the soil near the surface has sufficient bearing capacity to support the structure’s load. These foundations are commonly utilized for small to medium-sized constructions with light loads. Shallow foundations are distinguished by a depth that is smaller than the breadth or diameter of the foundation itself. The term “soap” refers to a form of construction that is used to describe a building.
a. Strip Footing
A continuous strip of concrete or masonry that distributes the load from a load-bearing wall or column to the soil is known as a strip footing. It is employed in the support of constructions such as residential buildings.
b. Pad Footing
A pad footing, also known as an isolated footing, is a concrete foundation that is square, rectangular, or circular and supports individual columns. It’s designed to support single columns or isolated loads.
c. Raft or Mat Foundation
A raft foundation, also known as a mat foundation, is a huge, thick concrete slab that covers the whole space beneath a structure. When the soil’s bearing capacity is low or uneven, it is employed to distribute the structure’s load across a broader area.
Deep Foundations
Deep foundations are used when the soil at the surface lacks the bearing capacity to support the load or when the structure requires extra stability. Deep foundations are often employed for large projects or when the soil conditions are difficult. These foundations carry the weight deeper into the earth, to layers of soil or rock with greater bearing capacity. Some examples of common deep foundations are:
a. Pile Foundations
Pile foundations are long, narrow structural pieces driven into the ground made of steel, concrete, or wood. They transfer weight via skin friction along the pile sides and/or end bearing at the pile tips. When the soil at the surface is weak or unstable, pile foundations are used.
b. Drilled Shaft Foundations
Drilled shaft foundations, also known as drilled piers or caissons, are deep, cylindrical excavations filled with concrete and reinforced with steel. They are typically utilized in regions with large vertical or lateral loads, such as bridge piers and tall structures, and are formed by drilling into the earth.
c. Diaphragm Walls
Diaphragm walls are thick, vertical reinforced concrete walls built by excavating a trench, inserting steel reinforcement, and pouring concrete into it. They are typically utilized in deep excavations as retaining walls or structural parts.
These are the two basic types of foundations, each of which serves a distinct purpose depending on the soil conditions, structural needs, and loads of the building or structure being built.
Historic types foundations
Historic structures frequently have numerous types of foundations that were commonly used during various time periods. Here are a few instances of historical foundations:
Rubble Stone Foundations
Rubblestone foundations were common in many old constructions, especially prior to the introduction of modern construction techniques. These foundations are made of unevenly shaped stones or boulders that are mortared or clayed together to form a strong foundation for the building.
Brick Foundations
Brick foundations were widely employed in historic structures, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries. They are constructed of bricks placed in courses and cemented together with mortar. Brick foundations add strength and stability to the structure above them.
Pier and Beam Foundations
In many older homes, pier and beam foundations were common. They are made up of a series of piers or columns set at regular intervals that support wooden beams that cross between them. The floor joists are then nailed to the beams. This foundation design enables ventilation and flexibility to accommodate uneven terrain.
Stone Slab Foundations
Stone slab foundations were commonly employed in older constructions, especially in places where stone was abundant. Large stone slabs are put horizontally to form a sturdy foundation. Stone slab foundations give stability and longevity, especially in rocky terrain.
Caisson Foundations
Caisson foundations were frequently used in the construction of massive historic constructions like bridges and monumental buildings. Deep cylindrical or rectangular shafts are dug into the ground and then filled with concrete or stone. Caisson foundations provide exceptional load-bearing capability and stability in difficult soil conditions.
Timber Pile Foundations
Timber pile foundations were popular in coastal locations and areas with soft or marshy soil. Long wooden piles are driven into the earth until they reach a sturdy stratum. To sustain the structure, the piles are capped with a beam system. Timber pile foundations offer stability by transmitting the load of the building to harder soil or rock structure.
Mortarless Stone Foundations
Mortarless stone foundations, also known as dry stone foundations, have been employed in a variety of historic constructions around the world. They entail meticulously laying stones without the use of mortar. The interlocking stone pattern provides a strong and long-lasting foundation. This approach is typically encountered in antique and historic architecture.
Design Considerations for Foundations
To maintain the stability and safety of structures, foundations must be carefully designed. Here are some essential foundation design considerations:
Site Investigation
A comprehensive analysis of the site is required before developing a foundation. This includes investigating soil conditions, performing geotechnical tests, and determining the bearing capacity and qualities of the soil. Understanding the characteristics of the site aids in determining the right foundation type and design specifications.
Structural Loads
The loads that the foundation will withstand must be precisely calculated. This includes taking into account both dead loads (the weight of the structure) and life loads (habitation, furniture, equipment, and so on). In addition, any lateral loads caused by wind, seismic activity, or soil pressure must be considered. It is critical to understand the volume and distribution of these loads in order to design a foundation that can safely support them.
Foundation Types
Different foundation types are appropriate for various soil conditions and structural needs. Shallow foundations (spread footings, mat foundations) and deep foundations (piles, drilled piers) are two common types. Soil strength, settlement restrictions, and the characteristics of the structure all play a role in determining the best foundation type.
Settlement Control
Controlling and regulating settlement is crucial for sustaining a building’s structural integrity. The differential settlement, or the settlement of various areas of the foundation at different speeds, can cause structural damage. Design concerns such as suitable foundation size, soil improvement techniques, and proper load distribution help to reduce differential settlement and assure the structure’s stability.
Waterproofing and Drainage
Water infiltration and groundwater management are critical for foundation durability. Proper waterproofing techniques, such as moisture barriers and waterproof coatings, keep moisture out of the foundation. Furthermore, good drainage systems, such as perimeter drains and sump pumps, aid in controlling water gathering around the foundation.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors such as water table level, the presence of expansive soils, and frost depth can all have an impact on foundation performance. These elements must be considered throughout the design phase. Foundation failure and damage can be avoided by designing foundations with adequate strategies to manage these environmental issues.
Construction Considerations
Construction practicality and feasibility should also be considered in foundation design. Construction equipment availability, site access, and construction processes must all be considered. The design should make construction more efficient and safe, ensuring that the foundation is erected appropriately and in accordance with the design goal.
Building Codes and Regulations
Building codes and regulations must be followed when designing a foundation. Local building codes specify and demand criteria such as foundation design loads, material specifications, and safety factors. Adhering to these codes guarantees that the foundation satisfies the essential standards and ensures the structure’s safety and integrity.
By considering these design factors, engineers can develop foundations that are tailored to the site conditions, load requirements, and environmental challenges. This contributes to structures’ stability, safety, and longevity.
Construction Techniques for Foundations
There are various foundation construction techniques that are regularly employed. The approach used is determined by criteria like soil conditions, structural requirements, and the type of foundation being built. Here are some of the most typical foundation construction techniques:
Excavation
Excavation is the process of removing soil or rock from a construction site in order to create a void in which to build the foundation. Excavation can be done manually using instruments such as shovels and picks or with the assistance of large machinery such as excavators or backhoes. The depth and dimensions of the excavation are governed by the foundation’s design requirements.
Formwork
Formwork is a term that refers to the temporary structures or molds that are used to shape and hold wet concrete before it hardens and gets strength. Formwork is often built of wood, steel, or aluminum and is used to form and size the foundation to the appropriate shape and measurements. It guarantees that the concrete is precisely poured and that it retains its shape during the curing process.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is an essential component of many foundation types, notably concrete foundations. Reinforcing steel rods, or rebar, are inserted within the concrete to boost its strength and resistance to tension. The rebar is laid out in a specific arrangement and attached using wire ties or other fastening methods.
Concrete Placement
The concrete is poured into the excavated space after the formwork and reinforcement are in place. Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregates (such as sand and gravel), water, and occasionally additives. Ready mix trucks normally deliver the concrete to the construction site, and then use equipment such as pumps or chutes to distribute it into the formwork. Care must be taken to ensure adequate concrete consolidation and the elimination of air voids.
Curing
After the concrete is laid, it must cure for a period of time to harden and build strength. Curing entails maintaining optimal moisture and temperature conditions to promote hydration and appropriate cement particle bonding. Curing can be accomplished by covering the concrete with damp burlap or plastic sheets, applying curing ingredients, or spraying it with water.
Waterproofing
Water penetration may require waterproofing of foundations in some cases. Waterproofing techniques can involve applying waterproof coatings or membranes to the foundation’s outside surface, installing drainage systems to redirect water away from the foundation, or using specialized waterproofing materials during construction.
These construction techniques assure adequate foundation installation and strength, providing stability and support to the structures above. To ensure the foundation’s durability and longevity, it is critical to adhere to industry standards and best practices.
Common Issues in Foundations Engineering
Foundation engineering, like any other discipline, may confront similar difficulties that engineers must address. Among these prevalent issues are:
Soil Settlement
One of the primary concerns in foundation engineering is soil settlement. The soil beneath a foundation may compress with time, resulting in differential settlement. This can result in structural damage and uneven foundation sinking, leading to fractures and instability.
Poor Soil Conditions
Foundations are only as strong as the soil on which they are built. Poor soil conditions, such as weak or expansive soils, can be extremely difficult to work with. Weak soils may not have the sufficient bearing capacity, whereas expansive soils may experience volume changes due to moisture fluctuations, resulting in foundation movement and probable damage.
Lateral Earth Pressure
Retaining structures like retaining walls and basements are vulnerable to lateral earth pressure from the surrounding soil. Excessive pressure can cause wall deformation or failure if it is not properly accounted for in the design.
Water-related Issues
Water is an important consideration in foundation engineering. High groundwater levels can cause hydrostatic pressure to build up against the foundation, potentially causing structural damage or instability. Poor drainage, inadequate sealing, or plumbing leaks can also cause soil infiltration, weakening the soil and impairing foundation performance.
Slope Stability
Slope stability is a critical consideration in steep or sloping environments. Slope failures caused by soil erosion, insufficient drainage, or seismic activity can compromise the stability of foundations near or on slopes.
Structural Overloading
Foundations are built to withstand specific loads. Changes in building usage or adjustments to the structure, on the other hand, might result in higher loads that exceed the foundation’s capacity, resulting in settlement or failure.
Construction Defects
During the construction phase, issues like poor compaction, insufficient reinforcement installation, or variations from design specifications may develop. These construction flaws can jeopardize the foundation’s integrity and performance.
To address these typical concerns, a full understanding of soil behavior, proper design methodologies, and adherence to construction best practices are required. In order to mitigate these issues and ensure the stability and durability of foundations, soil investigations, geotechnical analysis, and suitable design considerations are required.
Why Do We Need an Engineer to Inspect Foundations?
Engaging an expert to inspect the foundation is a key step in guaranteeing the structure’s integrity and safety. Here’s why it’s important to have an engineer inspect the foundation:
Expert Knowledge
Engineers have the ability and information required to effectively analyze the condition of a foundation. They have a thorough understanding of structural engineering concepts and can discover potential flaws or vulnerabilities that an inexperienced eye may miss.
Structural Evaluation
An engineer can perform a comprehensive structural assessment of the foundation to establish its current state and identify any symptoms of damage or deterioration. They can assess whether issues such as fractures, settling, unevenness, or water infiltration endanger the structure’s stability and safety.
Diagnosis of Issues
An engineer can determine the fundamental reasons for foundation difficulties. They can discover problems that may contribute to foundation degradation, such as poor soil conditions, insufficient drainage, or design errors. This enables them to offer relevant repair or mitigation measures.
Designing Remedial Measures
If foundation problems are discovered, an engineer can devise effective corrective procedures. They can create detailed plans for repairs or reinforcement techniques that are suited to the foundation’s individual conditions and requirements. Their knowledge ensures that the solutions put in place are appropriate and effective in resolving the identified issues.
Compliance with Standards
Hiring an expert for foundation inspection helps to guarantee that construction codes and standards are followed. They are familiar with local rules and can confirm that the foundation meets the necessary design criteria and safety factors. Their inspection may result in paperwork demonstrating conformity with these criteria.
Safety Assurance
An engineer inspecting the foundation’s primary concern is the safety of the structure and its occupants. They help reduce the danger of structural failure or collapse by identifying and fixing any foundation concerns. Their knowledge helps to create a safe living or working environment.
Read: What is Safety Assurance – With Free Resources
Long-Term Performance
An engineer’s inspection entails more than just finding immediate problems. They can also analyze the long-term functionality and durability of the foundation. They can make recommendations for maintenance or additional measures to extend the foundation’s lifespan by taking into account elements such as predicted loads, soil conditions, and environmental considerations.
In conclusion, hiring an engineer to inspect the foundation provides the advantages of their expertise, precise assessment, and capacity to diagnose and build necessary corrective solutions. Their participation helps the structure’s safety, compliance, and long-term performance.
Foundation Repair and Maintenance
The structural integrity and longevity of a building’s foundation must be preserved through foundation repair and maintenance. Here are some important foundation repair and maintenance considerations:
Regular Inspections
Regular foundation inspections are essential for detecting any signs of damage or deterioration. Examine the foundation for cracks, settling, unevenness, or water infiltration. Early discovery of problems allows for timely repairs and the avoidance of additional damage.
Addressing Water Issues
Water is a common cause of foundation difficulties. To minimize water collection and moisture infiltration, ensure sufficient drainage around the foundation. Clear downspouts and gutters, slope the ground away from the foundation and create proper drainage systems to move water away from the foundation.
Repairing Cracks
Cracks in the foundation can indicate underlying problems. Epoxy or polyurethane injections are frequently used to treat small, hairline fissures. Larger or more serious cracks may necessitate professional evaluation and repair, such as underpinning or slab lifting.
Soil Stabilization
Foundation settlement and movement can be caused by expansive soils or poor soil conditions. Soil stabilizing procedures, such as chemical injections or compaction, can assist ameliorate these concerns and prevent future foundation deterioration.
Foundation Underpinning
Underpinning methods may be required in circumstances of significant settlement or foundation movement. The foundation is reinforced or strengthened by extending it to deeper, more stable soil layers. Helical piers push piers, and slab piers are examples of common underpinning techniques.
Moisture Control
Excess moisture can induce soil expansion, which might result in foundation displacement. Use appropriate landscaping techniques, construct moisture barriers, and ensure optimum ventilation in crawl spaces or basements to maintain a consistent moisture level around the foundation.
Professional Expertise
The knowledge of structural engineers or foundation repair specialists is frequently required for foundation repair and maintenance. Consult with experts to determine the severity of the problem, offer appropriate repair solutions, and ensure that repairs are carried out effectively and safely.
Compliance with Codes and Regulations
It is critical to follow local construction codes and regulations while performing foundation repairs or renovations. Obtain the relevant permits and ensure that repairs meet the required standards, assuring the structure’s safety and compliance.
Ongoing Maintenance
Following the completion of repairs, continued care is critical for the foundation’s long-term health. Inspect the foundation on a regular basis, solve any drainage or water concerns as soon as possible, and maintain proper moisture levels. Monitor the surrounding landscape as well to minimize root infiltration or changes in soil conditions.
Potential concerns can be discovered and corrected early by proactively addressing foundation repair and undertaking routine maintenance, reducing the risk of structural damage and ensuring the stability and durability of the building’s foundation.
Emerging Trends in Foundations Engineering
Foundations engineering, like many other professions, is always changing as new technologies, techniques, and trends emerge. Here are some upcoming foundation engineering trends:
Green and Sustainable Foundations
Green and sustainable foundations are becoming more popular as the emphasis on sustainability and environmental consciousness grows. This entails combining eco-friendly elements into foundation construction, such as recycled aggregates or geopolymer concrete. Furthermore, sustainable foundation designs prioritize minimizing environmental effects and optimizing energy efficiency during construction and throughout the structure’s lifecycle.
Innovative Foundation Materials
Researchers and engineers are investigating new foundation materials in order to improve performance and minimize costs. The use of fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) as foundation reinforcement, for example, is gaining popularity due to their high strength, corrosion resistance, and longevity. Other novel materials, such as geosynthetics and geotextiles, are being employed to improve soil stabilization and foundation performance in difficult soil situations.
Advanced Geotechnical Investigation Techniques Geotechnical investigations play a crucial role in foundation design and construction. Emerging advances in site characterization include the use of modern technologies such as remote sensing techniques, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), and geophysical methodologies. These technologies provide extensive information on subsurface conditions, making foundation designs more accurate and efficient.
Performance Monitoring and Instrumentation
Real-time monitoring and foundation instrumentation are becoming more common. Installation of sensors and monitoring systems to collect data on parameters such as settlement, stress, and groundwater levels is required. Engineers can examine the behavior of foundations during and after construction by monitoring their performance and making educated decisions about maintenance, repairs, or adjustments.
Data-Driven Foundation Design
Data analytics and computer modeling are revolutionizing foundation design. Engineers may now use massive volumes of geotechnical and structural data to improve foundation designs, anticipate performance, and increase reliability. Machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence approaches are being used to examine large data sets and give foundation design recommendations.
Resilient Foundation Design
In order to overcome the issues provided by climate change and natural disasters, resilience is gaining significance in foundation engineering. The term “repair” refers to the process of replacing a piece of equipment with a new one. Engineers are incorporating resilience principles into foundation designs to ensure structures’ long-term stability and functionality.
These arising foundations engineering trends are impacting the field’s future by supporting sustainable practices, enhancing performance and reliability, and allowing engineers to build foundations that can resist the rigors of a quickly changing environment.
Conclusion
Finally, foundation engineering plays an important role in guaranteeing the stability, safety, and lifespan of structures. It necessitates an in-depth knowledge of soil mechanics, geotechnical principles, and structural analysis. Foundation engineers establish the essential support system that withstands the loads imposed by the structures above by conducting detailed design investigations, considering diverse soil characteristics, and utilizing appropriate construction techniques. A well-designed foundation is the backbone upon which the entire structure depends, whether it’s a high-rise building, a bridge, or a dam.
With developments in materials, construction processes, and analysis methodologies, the discipline of foundation engineering continues to evolve. Engineers are more competent to design foundations that can survive demanding situations like seismic activity, expanding soils, or high groundwater levels as our understanding of soil behavior increases. In order to keep up with the latest developments in technology, it is important to have a solid foundation.
FAQs
Foundation engineering is a subfield of civil engineering concerned with the design, analysis, and construction of foundations for structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams.
Foundation engineering is critical because the quality and integrity of a structure’s foundation determine its stability and safety. A well-designed foundation ensures a building’s or infrastructure’s structural integrity.
Shallow foundations (such as spread footings and mat foundations) and deep foundations (such as driven piles and drilled shafts) are two common types of foundations.
Various elements, such as soil conditions, structural load, groundwater table, and local building laws and regulations, are used to select the type of foundation.
The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum load that the soil can support without experiencing excessive settlement or shear failure. It is an important consideration in foundation design.
Various field tests, laboratory tests, and analytical approaches are used to determine the soil’s bearing capacity. The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Plate Load Test are two common tests.
The assessment of the physical and mechanical qualities of soil at a construction site is known as soil investigation. It aids in the selection of the proper foundation type and the design of the foundation system.
Soil Conditions
Structural Loads
Building Type and Configuration
Environmental Conditions
Cost and Time Considerations
Local Building Codes and Regulations
Future Use and Expansion
A geotechnical report describes a site’s soil characteristics, groundwater levels, and other geotechnical aspects. It is used as a foundation design and construction planning tool.
Soil compaction ensures that the soil beneath a foundation is dense and solid enough to withstand the applied loads. It decreases settlement and boosts the soil’s bearing capacity.
Geotechnical analysis, which includes techniques like one-dimensional consolidation analysis and numerical modeling, is used to assess foundation settlements. In most building regulations, settlement restrictions are specified.
Poor soil conditions, inadequate design, construction faults, excessive loads, and changes in groundwater levels can all cause foundation failures.
Foundation failures can be avoided by conducting thorough soil investigations, developing foundations based on suitable engineering concepts, assuring quality construction procedures, and maintaining them on a regular basis.
The stability of foundations is influenced by groundwater. It has the potential to produce soil erosion, increase pore water pressure, and differential settlement. The management of groundwater requires proper drainage and waterproofing methods.
In seismic zones, foundation design must take into account the possibility of ground shaking and soil liquefaction. Deep foundations, base isolation, and ground improvement procedures may all be required.
Retaining walls, sheet pile walls, and soldier pile walls are all common types of retaining structures. They are used to protect slopes from lateral earth pressures and to provide stability.
Slope stability analysis is the process of determining the stability of natural or man-made slopes in order to prevent landslides and slope failures. It takes into account aspects including soil qualities, groundwater conditions, and slope geometry.
When shallow foundations are not suitable due to weak or compressible soil layers, pile foundations are used. They move loads to deeper, more capable soil or rock strata.
Driven piles (such as steel piles and concrete piles) and drilled piles (such as bored piles and auger cast piles) are two forms of piles. The type of pile used is determined by soil conditions and design requirements.
Pile capacities are determined using pile load tests, which include both static and dynamic load tests. The tests assess piles’ load-bearing capacity and performance under various conditions.
Ground enhancement techniques are used to improve soil engineering qualities such as bearing capacity, settlement reduction, drainage improvement, and liquefaction mitigation.
Common techniques for improving the ground consist of compaction, preloading and surcharging, soil stabilization with additives, Vibro-compaction, soil combining, and grouting.
Various ways of monitoring foundation construction are used, including the use of devices such as settlement gauges, inclinometers, piezometers, and strain gauges. Monitoring aids in ensuring the foundation’s integrity during construction.
The lifespan of a foundation is determined by a variety of elements, including construction quality, maintenance procedures, soil conditions, and environmental influences. Well-designed and well-maintained foundations can last for decades if not centuries.
Geotechnical engineers are essential in foundation engineering. They conduct soil investigations, assess soil qualities, design foundations, and make construction suggestions that are safe and efficient.
Existing foundations can be modified or reinforced to improve performance or to suit changes in load needs. This can be accomplished through the use of techniques such as underpinning, soil grouting, and structural alterations.
